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Character Strengths and Virtues |
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| A Handbook and Classification | ||
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by Christopher Peterson and
Martin P. Seligman In this comprehensive tour de force, the authors and a long list of contributors have brought together just about everything that’s currently known – and everything that ever has been known – about human virtues and character in the everyday world. And they’ve not only provided a meaningful classification but, through their own original research, have furthered the knowledge base considerably. Without doubt, this book firmly reestablishes the concept of character in the mainstream of psychological thought. As many will already know, character had fallen out of favor as a psychological construct by the 1930s. Gordon Allport’s work, for example, asserted that only empirically measurable phenomena should be studied relative to personality. Allport called these phenomena “neuropsychic structures” in order to distance them from what he considered to be the inappropriately moralistic views of philosophy and religion. According to one historian of the field, Allport's work “was deeply embedded in the cultural politics of the age. Of particular importance was the gradual erosion of the language of character and the self-sacrificing, morally grounded self that it supported.” For many psychologists, the rejection of common standards and the “nonjudgmental stance” that were fostered by postmodernists has been troubling. After all, a world view that insists each person must determine what good is, without reference to external standards, is itself internally inconsistent. If there is no real self then there can be no real self-interests and no real love of or real concern for the welfare of other selves – and thus there can be no virtues. What’s been even more troubling is that this world view, with its “value-free” stance, has almost certainly resulted in subtle but pervasive negative consequences for both individuals and societies. Positive psychology, Martin Seligman’s answer to the field’s current disregard of values, is the “scientific pursuit of optimal human functioning and the building of a field focusing on human strength and virtue.” Peterson and Seligman have had long careers during which to reflect on the issues surrounding strengths, virtues and character. This book provides convincing evidence that it is now possible to scientifically study these constructs. In the writing of this book they exhaustively reviewed the research and philosophical literature, consulted with numerous experts, solicited input from a wide range of thinkers, and went through drafts and major revisions. The book is clearly and methodically laid out, and its topic is obviously dear to the authors. To set the stage, the authors consider the question of whether the human species has, or can have, a set of universal virtues. To address this question they looked at various cultures across many eras and, to the extent possible, integrated the views of these different times, philosophies, religions and societies. Comparisons and contrasts with the various systems of thought are clearly presented for the reader. (Even the codes of the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides were considered!) The historical review of the virtues, presented as Chapter 2, makes thought-provoking reading and puts the rest of the book’s catalog in proper perspective/context. The introduction, along with Chapters 2 and 3, would make a complete book in themselves. However, the bulk of this 800-page volume is given over to a detailed and sensible cataloging of the human virtues and the qualities that define the best in human nature. According to Peterson and Seligman, “The overarching goal of the present classification is to reclaim psychology’s early concern with character by drawing on a century’s worth of hard-learned lessons about how to conduct good psychological science” (p. 59). In contrast to the DSM’s focus on illness and deficit, this categorization is “a manual of the sanities.” Virtues are possibly evolved adaptations hard-wired into our species, but also seem to have a cultural or learned aspect. The authors identify six core virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. They define character strengths as the psychological components out of which virtues are constructed or manifested. The authors provide 24 of these strengths, such as bravery, kindness, hope, and honesty, but point out that this list may not be exhaustive – there may be additional strengths not yet classified. The core virtues form the six sections of the main part of the book, and these are further subdivided into the 24 character strengths, each of which is considered in its own chapter. The chapters tend to follow a common format: definition; theory; methods of measurement or identification; correlates and consequences; manner of development; situational correlates; gender or cultural differences; a discussion of what is not yet known; and each ends with an exhaustive reference list of research and writings on that particular character strength. The book raises other interesting questions about character and the virtues. For example, although character is presumed to be in large part innate (genetically-grounded), can an act performed unconsciously or automatically be considered virtuous, or would it then be not virtuous but simply an automated action, having left no room for “agency” or free will? And if it is possible to be unconsciously virtuous, would those actions be as commendable as are conscious, intentional acts of virtue? (I.e., are there degrees of virtue?) What are the evolutionary adaptations that underlie the virtues? And do the virtues change over time? For example, among the ancient Greeks, “greatness of soul” and “magnificence” were seen as virtues. (The former referred to holding oneself capable of greatness, while the latter meant lavish spending on warships or religious sacrifices for the public good.) And the authors point out that some virtues previously identified by authorities such as Ben Franklin, such as cleanliness, may only be considered virtues today in contrast to their opposites. (That is, no one now would think someone virtuous because he or she showers every day!) This book is especially well crafted and a pleasure to read. Although thick, not one of its pages is wasted. I would wager that every reader, no matter his or her initial take on these issues, will find this book interesting, informative, and wide-ranging. The curious reader will also want to take the “Values in Action Strengths Survey,” an inventory (fully explained in the book) that provides free, online results to survey-takers.
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